is not sufficiently advanced

• Адекватные экспериментальные подтверждения данной теории отсутствуют. - Adequate empirical support for the theory is lacking.

• Большая часть данной теории может быть развита в терминах... - A large part of the theory can be developed in terms of...

• Было выдвинуто много теорий, чтобы объяснить... - Many theories have been advanced to explain...

• В данной главе мы разовьем теорию... - In this chapter we shall develop the theory of...

• В данной книге описывается современная теория... - This book describes the modern theory of...

• В данной приближенной теории предполагается, что... - In the approximate theory it is assumed that...

• В настоящий момент не существует полностью удовлетворительной теории... - Currently there is no completely satisfactory theory of...

• Все эти теории имеют общей идею, что... - These theories have in common the idea that...

• Д-р Смит был основным разработчиком теории... - Dr. Smith has been a key contributor to the theory of...

• Данная теория могла бы соответственно основываться на... - The theory could accordingly be based on...

• Данная теория недостаточно разработана, чтобы разрешить... - This theory is not sufficiently advanced to permit...

• Данная теория также объясняет тот факт, что... - This theory also explains the fact that...

• (Действительно) последовательная теория должна учитывать (эффект и т. п.). - A comprehensive theory must account for...

• Детальная теория показывает, что... - Detailed theory shows that...

• Другим недостатком данной теории является то, что... - The other disadvantage of the theory is that...

• Если эта теория верна, то... - If this theory is correct, then...

• К сожалению, как мы увидим, данная теория не предсказывает... - Unfortunately, as we shall see, the theory does not predict...

• Каждая из этих теорий включает в себя предположения относительно... - Each of these theories involves assumptions about...

• Мы могли бы продолжить развитие теории... - We could go on to develop a theory of...

• Наиболее широко принятые современные теории утверждают, что... - The most widely accepted modern theories suggest that...

• Наилучшим образом проблема исследуется с использованием теории... - The problem is best approached through the theory of...

• Не было разработано никакой теории, чтобы анализировать... - No theory has been developed to analyze...

• Обширная часть теории была разработана для... - A vast amount of theory has been developed for...

• Одна простая теория может использоваться для... - A simple theory can be used to...

• Одна теория предлагает... - One theory suggests that...

• Однако данная теория по-прежнему имеет два дефекта. - The theory still suffered from two defects, however.

• Однако окончательные результаты теории не могут зависеть от... - But the final results of the theory must not depend on...

• Однако, во-первых, нам необходимо изучить общую теорию... - First, however, we need to study the general theory of...

• Одним из таких орудий является классическая теория (чего-л). - One such tool is the classical theory of...

• Перед тем, как оставить общую теорию, было бы желательно... - Before leaving the general theory it may be desirable to...

• Предыдущая теория легко иллюстрируется (посредством)... - The above theory is easily illustrated by means of...

• Приведенная выше теория не предсказывает хорошо известный результат, что... - The theory given above does not predict the well-known result that...

• Приложения данной теории играют жизненно важную роль в... - The applications of this theory play a vital role in...

• Применение данной теории к частным случаям требует... - The application of the theory to particular cases requires...

• Работая независимо, Смит [1] развил теорию... - Smith [1], working independently, developed the theory of...

• Развивая данную теорию, мы будем существенно использовать... - In developing the theory we shall make considerable use of...

• Развитие подобной теории началось в ранних 1980-х годах работой Смита[1]. - The development of such a theory began in the early 1980s with the work of Smith [1].

• Развитие этой теории в огромной степени облегчается... - The development of this theory is greatly facilitated by...

• Следовательно, мы обязаны попытаться развить теорию, которая приводит к... - Hence, we must try to develop a theory that leads to...

• Согласно теории электромагнетизма... - According to electromagnetic theory,...

• Существуют несколько способов дать введение в теорию... - There are several ways of introducing the theory of...

• Такое согласие между теорией и экспериментом вполне удовлетворительно в свете... - The agreement between theory and experiment is quite good in view of..'.

• Теперь мы приходим к теории... - We now come to the theory of...

• Подходящая теория может быть развита при использовании... - A satisfactory theory can be developed using...

• Чтобы получить удовлетворительную теорию, мы обязаны... - То obtain a satisfactory theory it is necessary to...

• Чтобы отдать предпочтение одной из двух теорий,... - То decide between the two theories...

• Эта теория может также объяснить... - This theory may also account for...

• Эти трудности мотивировали формулировку приближенных теорий для описания... - These complications have motivated the formulation of approximate theories to describe...

• Эти уравнения положены в основу теории... - These equations form the basis of the theory of...

• Это находится в соответствии с теорией... - This is in accordance with the theory of...

• Эту сложную теорию трудна объяснить в простых терминах. - This theory is difficult to comprehend in simple terms.

• Эту теорию можно использовать только когда... - This theory is applicable only when...

• Явное расхождение между теорией и практикой может быть устранено, если... - The apparent discrepancy between theory and practice can be resolved if...

• Яркой чертой данной теории является то, что... - A salient feature of the theory is that...

• Данная теория недостаточно разработана, чтобы... This theory is not sufficiently advanced to permit...

• недостаточно исследован - (it) is not clearly understo* is not adequately investigated

• Однако, как указывает Смит [1], недостаточно, чтобы... - But, as Smith [1] points out, it is not sufficient that...

• Само по себе это недостаточно для того, чтобы гарантировать... - This in itself is not enough to guarantee that...

•

This theory is not sufficiently advanced to permit...

• Данная теория недостаточно разработана, чтобы... - This theory is not sufficiently advanced to permit...

• Однако мы воспользуемся здесь более общим методом, разработанным Воровичем [1]. - But we shall follow here a more general method due to Vorovich [1].

• Разработанный Смитом [1] метод зависит от того обстоятельства, что... - The method devised by Smith [1] depends on the fact that...

. если не считать; за исключением; кроме; минус

•

But for a few substances, the state of the art has not advanced sufficiently.

•

Except for (or With the exception of) the bubble caps the plant was constructed entirely of carbon steel.

•

The delivered cost of a 20,000 lb/hr steam unit is about 120,000 dollars excluding buildings, water treating facilities, stacks, and outside piping.

•

The total cost of the part, exclusive of (or less, or minus) material costs, would be...

•

Not counting optical isomers, there are two butanes with...

. за исключением; не считая

•

Other than hydrogen, helium is the least dense element known.

•

But for (or With the exception of, or Except for) a few substances, the state of the art has not advanced sufficiently to permit...

* * *

 This behavior does not normally occur under impact loading except for low strength steels.

 There are no special working fluid restrictions other than the mutual compatability for the cycle application.

 The melting coefficients, aside from a slight scatter, can be regarded as lying on a parallel straight line.

. все, за исключением нескольких; исключая; кроме; не считая; помимо

•

All these compounds except the monomethylnaphthalenes are of some commercial importance.

•

Linear molecules, other than diatomics, can be treated similarly.

•

The machine requires practically no maintenance apart from electrode dressing.

•

But for a few substances, the state of the art has not advanced sufficiently to permit...

•

These miniatures compare in every way except size with the larger connectors.

•

Except for the bubble caps, the plant was constructed entirely of carbon steel.

•

These particles are identical except for the sight of their charge.

•

Except in a few special cases, very little visible or radar energy is emitted.

•

Excepting the test pieces used for the experiment described in Sect. 7, all the specimens were heated at 200°C for 2000 min.

•

The total cost of the part, exclusive of (or excluding, or with the exception of) material costs, would be...

•

The media used for assay of amino acids contain a complete mixture of pure amino acids, save for the one to be determined.

•

With the exception of some one-coat enamels, most porcelain enamels are applied in two or more coats.

•

The weight of the press, less the hydraulic equipment, is 37 tons.

* * *

 It is doubtful that the routine use of a finite element approach would prove economically justified, except in a research study.

 This behavior does not normally occur under impact loading except for low strength steels.

 All physical properties of the oil, with the exception of the thermal conductivity, were measured over the temperature range of interest.

 The velocity data for both the isothermal and heated cases are seen to be virtually identical, save for the typical upstream shift of the data.

 Frictional heating causes a significant rise in temperature of all but the most lightly loaded systems.

. за исключением; не считая

•

Other than hydrogen, helium is the least dense element known.

•

But for (or With the exception of, or Except for) a few substances, the state of the art has not advanced sufficiently to permit...

. все, за исключением нескольких; исключая; кроме; не считая; помимо

•

All these compounds except the monomethylnaphthalenes are of some commercial importance.

•

Linear molecules, other than diatomics, can be treated similarly.

•

The machine requires practically no maintenance apart from electrode dressing.

•

But for a few substances, the state of the art has not advanced sufficiently to permit...

•

These miniatures compare in every way except size with the larger connectors.

•

Except for the bubble caps, the plant was constructed entirely of carbon steel.

•

These particles are identical except for the sight of their charge.

•

Except in a few special cases, very little visible or radar energy is emitted.

•

Excepting the test pieces used for the experiment described in Sect. 7, all the specimens were heated at 200°C for 2000 min.

•

The total cost of the part, exclusive of (or excluding, or with the exception of) material costs, would be...

•

The media used for assay of amino acids contain a complete mixture of pure amino acids, save for the one to be determined.

•

With the exception of some one-coat enamels, most porcelain enamels are applied in two or more coats.

•

The weight of the press, less the hydraulic equipment, is 37 tons.

SUBJECT AREA: Photography, film and optics

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Dickson was born in France of English and Scottish parents. As a young man of almost 19 years, he wrote in 1879 to Thomas Edison in America, asking for a job. Edison replied that he was not taking on new staff at that time, but Dickson, with his mother and sisters, decided to emigrate anyway. In 1883 he contacted Edison again, and was given a job at the Goerk Street laboratory of the Edison Electric Works in New York. He soon assumed a position of responsibility as Superintendent, working on the development of electric light and power systems, and also carried out most of the photography Edison required. In 1888 he moved to the Edison West Orange laboratory, becoming Head of the ore-milling department. When Edison, inspired by Muybridge's sequence photographs of humans and animals in motion, decided to develop a motion picture apparatus, he gave the task to Dickson, whose considerable skills in mechanics, photography and electrical work made him the obvious choice. The first experiments, in 1888, were on a cylinder machine like the phonograph, in which the sequence pictures were to be taken in a spiral. This soon proved to be impractical, and work was delayed for a time while Dickson developed a new ore-milling machine. Little progress with the movie project was made until George Eastman's introduction in July 1889 of celluloid roll film, which was thin, tough, transparent and very flexible. Dickson returned to his experiments in the spring of 1891 and soon had working models of a film camera and viewer, the latter being demonstrated at the West Orange laboratory on 20 May 1891. By the early summer of 1892 the project had advanced sufficiently for commercial exploitation to begin. The Kinetograph camera used perforated 35 mm film (essentially the same as that still in use in the late twentieth century), and the kinetoscope, a peep-show viewer, took fifty feet of film running in an endless loop. Full-scale manufacture of the viewers started in 1893, and they were demonstrated on a number of occasions during that year. On 14 April 1894 the first kinetoscope parlour, with ten viewers, was opened to the public in New York. By the end of that year, the kinetoscope was seen by the public all over America and in Europe. Dickson had created the first commercially successful cinematograph system. Dickson left Edison's employment on 2 April 1895, and for a time worked with Woodville Latham on the development of his Panoptikon projector, a projection version of the kinetoscope. In December 1895 he joined with Herman Casier, Henry N.Marvin and Elias Koopman to form the American Mutoscope Company. Casier had designed the Mutoscope, an animated-picture viewer in which the sequences of pictures were printed on cards fixed radially to a drum and were flipped past the eye as the drum rotated. Dickson designed the Biograph wide-film camera to produce the picture sequences, and also a projector to show the films directly onto a screen. The large-format images gave pictures of high quality for the period; the Biograph went on public show in America in September 1896, and subsequently throughout the world, operating until around 1905. In May 1897 Dickson returned to England and set up as a producer of Biograph films, recording, among other subjects, Queen Victoria's Diamond Jubilee celebrations in 1897, Pope Leo XIII in 1898, and scenes of the Boer War in 1899 and 1900. Many of the Biograph subjects were printed as reels for the Mutoscope to produce the "what the butler saw" machines which were a feature of fairgrounds and seaside arcades until modern times. Dickson's contact with the Biograph Company, and with it his involvement in cinematography, ceased in 1911.

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SUBJECT AREA: Paper and printing

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Few biographical details are known of Johann Gensfleisch zum Gutenberg, yet it has been said that he was responsible for Germany's most notable contribution to civilization. He was a goldsmith by trade, of a patrician family of the city of Mainz. He seems to have begun experiments on printing while a political exile in Strasbourg c. 1440. He returned to Mainz between 1444 and 1448 and continued his experiments, until by 1450 he had perfected his invention sufficiently to justify raising capital for its commercial exploitation.

Circumstances were propitious for the invention of printing at that time. Rises in literacy and prosperity had led to the formation of a social class with the time and resources to develop a taste for reading, and the demand for reading matter had outstripped the ability of the scribes to satisfy it. The various technologies required were well established, and finally the flourishing textile industry was producing enough waste material, rag, to make paper, the only satisfactory and cheap medium for printing. There were others working along similar lines, but it was Gutenberg who achieved the successful adaptation and combination of technologies to arrive at a process by which many identical copies of a text could be produced in a wide variety of forms, of which the book was the most important. Gutenberg did make several technical innovations, however. The two-piece adjustable mould for casting types of varying width, from T to "M", was ingenious. Then he had to devise an oil-based ink suitable for inking metal type, derived from the painting materials developed by contemporary Flemish artists. Finally, probably after many experiments, he arrived at a metal alloy of distinctive composition suitable for casting type.

In 1450 Gutenberg borrowed 800 guldens from Johannes Fust, a lawyer of Mainz, and two years later Fust advanced a further 800 guldens, securing for himself a partnership in Gutenberg's business. But in 1455 Fust foreclosed and the bulk of Gutenberg's equipment passed to Peter Schöffer, who was in the service of Fust and later married his daughter. Like most early printers, Gutenberg seems not to have appreciated, or at any rate to have been able to provide for, the great dilemma of the publishing trade, namely the outlay of considerable capital in advance of each publication and the slowness of the return. Gutenberg probably retained only the type for the 42- and 36-line bibles and possibly the Catholicon of 1460, an encyclopedic work compiled in the thirteenth century and whose production pointed the way to printing's role as a means of spreading knowledge. The work concluded with a short descriptive piece, or colophon, which is probably by Gutenberg himself and is the only output of his mind that we have; it manages to omit the names of both author and printer.

Gutenberg seems to have abandoned printing after 1460, perhaps due to failing eyesight as well as for financial reasons, and he suffered further loss in the sack of Mainz in 1462. He received a kind of pension from the Archbishop in 1465, and on his death was buried in the Franciscan church in Mainz. The only major work to have issued for certain from Gutenberg's workshop is the great 42-line bible, begun in 1452 and completed by August 1456. The quality of this Graaf piece of printing is a tribute to Gutenberg's ability as a printer, and the soundness of his invention is borne out by the survival of the process as he left it to the world, unchanged for over three hundred years save in minor details.

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